class AuthCommand(object):
     """TPMS_AUTH_COMMAND"""
 
-    def __init__(self, session_handle=TPM2_RS_PW, nonce='', session_attributes=0,
-                 hmac=''):
+    def __init__(self, session_handle=TPM2_RS_PW, nonce=bytes(),
+                 session_attributes=0, hmac=bytes()):
         self.session_handle = session_handle
         self.nonce = nonce
         self.session_attributes = session_attributes
         self.hmac = hmac
 
-    def __str__(self):
+    def __bytes__(self):
         fmt = '>I H%us B H%us' % (len(self.nonce), len(self.hmac))
         return struct.pack(fmt, self.session_handle, len(self.nonce),
                            self.nonce, self.session_attributes, len(self.hmac),
 class SensitiveCreate(object):
     """TPMS_SENSITIVE_CREATE"""
 
-    def __init__(self, user_auth='', data=''):
+    def __init__(self, user_auth=bytes(), data=bytes()):
         self.user_auth = user_auth
         self.data = data
 
-    def __str__(self):
+    def __bytes__(self):
         fmt = '>H%us H%us' % (len(self.user_auth), len(self.data))
         return struct.pack(fmt, len(self.user_auth), self.user_auth,
                            len(self.data), self.data)
         return '>HHIH%us%usH%us' % \
             (len(self.auth_policy), len(self.parameters), len(self.unique))
 
-    def __init__(self, object_type, name_alg, object_attributes, auth_policy='',
-                 parameters='', unique=''):
+    def __init__(self, object_type, name_alg, object_attributes,
+                 auth_policy=bytes(), parameters=bytes(),
+                 unique=bytes()):
         self.object_type = object_type
         self.name_alg = name_alg
         self.object_attributes = object_attributes
         self.parameters = parameters
         self.unique = unique
 
-    def __str__(self):
+    def __bytes__(self):
         return struct.pack(self.__fmt(),
                            self.object_type,
                            self.name_alg,
 
 def hex_dump(d):
     d = [format(ord(x), '02x') for x in d]
-    d = [d[i: i + 16] for i in xrange(0, len(d), 16)]
+    d = [d[i: i + 16] for i in range(0, len(d), 16)]
     d = [' '.join(x) for x in d]
     d = os.linesep.join(d)
 
         pcrsel_len = max((i >> 3) + 1, 3)
         pcrsel = [0] * pcrsel_len
         pcrsel[i >> 3] = 1 << (i & 7)
-        pcrsel = ''.join(map(chr, pcrsel))
+        pcrsel = ''.join(map(chr, pcrsel)).encode()
 
         fmt = '>HII IHB%us' % (pcrsel_len)
         cmd = struct.pack(fmt,
             TPM2_CC_PCR_EXTEND,
             i,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd),
+            bytes(auth_cmd),
             1, bank_alg, dig)
 
         self.send_cmd(cmd)
                           TPM2_RH_NULL,
                           TPM2_RH_NULL,
                           16,
-                          '\0' * 16,
+                          ('\0' * 16).encode(),
                           0,
                           session_type,
                           TPM2_ALG_NULL,
 
         for i in pcrs:
             pcr = self.read_pcr(i, bank_alg)
-            if pcr == None:
+            if pcr is None:
                 return None
             x += pcr
 
         pcrsel = [0] * pcrsel_len
         for i in pcrs:
             pcrsel[i >> 3] |= 1 << (i & 7)
-        pcrsel = ''.join(map(chr, pcrsel))
+        pcrsel = ''.join(map(chr, pcrsel)).encode()
 
         fmt = '>HII IH%usIHB3s' % ds
         cmd = struct.pack(fmt,
                           struct.calcsize(fmt),
                           TPM2_CC_POLICY_PCR,
                           handle,
-                          len(dig), str(dig),
+                          len(dig),
+                          bytes(dig),
                           1,
                           bank_alg,
                           pcrsel_len, pcrsel)
 
         self.send_cmd(cmd)
 
-    def create_root_key(self, auth_value = ''):
+    def create_root_key(self, auth_value = bytes()):
         attributes = \
             Public.FIXED_TPM | \
             Public.FIXED_PARENT | \
             TPM2_CC_CREATE_PRIMARY,
             TPM2_RH_OWNER,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd),
+            bytes(auth_cmd),
             len(sensitive),
-            str(sensitive),
+            bytes(sensitive),
             len(public),
-            str(public),
+            bytes(public),
             0, 0)
 
         return struct.unpack('>I', self.send_cmd(cmd)[10:14])[0]
         attributes = 0
         if not policy_dig:
             attributes |= Public.USER_WITH_AUTH
-            policy_dig = ''
+            policy_dig = bytes()
 
         auth_cmd =  AuthCommand()
         sensitive = SensitiveCreate(user_auth=auth_value, data=data)
             TPM2_CC_CREATE,
             parent_key,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd),
+            bytes(auth_cmd),
             len(sensitive),
-            str(sensitive),
+            bytes(sensitive),
             len(public),
-            str(public),
+            bytes(public),
             0, 0)
 
         rsp = self.send_cmd(cmd)
             TPM2_CC_LOAD,
             parent_key,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd),
+            bytes(auth_cmd),
             blob)
 
         data_handle = struct.unpack('>I', self.send_cmd(cmd)[10:14])[0]
             TPM2_CC_UNSEAL,
             data_handle,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd))
+            bytes(auth_cmd))
 
         try:
             rsp = self.send_cmd(cmd)
             TPM2_CC_DICTIONARY_ATTACK_LOCK_RESET,
             TPM2_RH_LOCKOUT,
             len(auth_cmd),
-            str(auth_cmd))
+            bytes(auth_cmd))
 
         self.send_cmd(cmd)
 
         more_data, cap, cnt = struct.unpack('>BII', rsp[:9])
         rsp = rsp[9:]
 
-        for i in xrange(0, cnt):
+        for i in range(0, cnt):
             handle = struct.unpack('>I', rsp[:4])[0]
             handles.append(handle)
             rsp = rsp[4:]
 
         self.client.close()
 
     def test_seal_with_auth(self):
-        data = 'X' * 64
-        auth = 'A' * 15
+        data = ('X' * 64).encode()
+        auth = ('A' * 15).encode()
 
         blob = self.client.seal(self.root_key, data, auth, None)
         result = self.client.unseal(self.root_key, blob, auth, None)
     def test_seal_with_policy(self):
         handle = self.client.start_auth_session(tpm2.TPM2_SE_TRIAL)
 
-        data = 'X' * 64
-        auth = 'A' * 15
+        data = ('X' * 64).encode()
+        auth = ('A' * 15).encode()
         pcrs = [16]
 
         try:
         self.assertEqual(data, result)
 
     def test_unseal_with_wrong_auth(self):
-        data = 'X' * 64
-        auth = 'A' * 20
+        data = ('X' * 64).encode()
+        auth = ('A' * 20).encode()
         rc = 0
 
         blob = self.client.seal(self.root_key, data, auth, None)
         try:
-            result = self.client.unseal(self.root_key, blob, auth[:-1] + 'B', None)
-        except ProtocolError, e:
+            result = self.client.unseal(self.root_key, blob,
+                        auth[:-1] + 'B'.encode(), None)
+        except ProtocolError as e:
             rc = e.rc
 
         self.assertEqual(rc, tpm2.TPM2_RC_AUTH_FAIL)
     def test_unseal_with_wrong_policy(self):
         handle = self.client.start_auth_session(tpm2.TPM2_SE_TRIAL)
 
-        data = 'X' * 64
-        auth = 'A' * 17
+        data = ('X' * 64).encode()
+        auth = ('A' * 17).encode()
         pcrs = [16]
 
         try:
         # This should succeed.
 
         ds = tpm2.get_digest_size(tpm2.TPM2_ALG_SHA1)
-        self.client.extend_pcr(1, 'X' * ds)
+        self.client.extend_pcr(1, ('X' * ds).encode())
 
         handle = self.client.start_auth_session(tpm2.TPM2_SE_POLICY)
 
 
         # Then, extend a PCR that is part of the policy and try to unseal.
         # This should fail.
-        self.client.extend_pcr(16, 'X' * ds)
+        self.client.extend_pcr(16, ('X' * ds).encode())
 
         handle = self.client.start_auth_session(tpm2.TPM2_SE_POLICY)
 
             self.client.policy_password(handle)
 
             result = self.client.unseal(self.root_key, blob, auth, handle)
-        except ProtocolError, e:
+        except ProtocolError as e:
             rc = e.rc
             self.client.flush_context(handle)
         except:
 
     def test_seal_with_too_long_auth(self):
         ds = tpm2.get_digest_size(tpm2.TPM2_ALG_SHA1)
-        data = 'X' * 64
-        auth = 'A' * (ds + 1)
+        data = ('X' * 64).encode()
+        auth = ('A' * (ds + 1)).encode()
 
         rc = 0
         try:
             blob = self.client.seal(self.root_key, data, auth, None)
-        except ProtocolError, e:
+        except ProtocolError as e:
             rc = e.rc
 
         self.assertEqual(rc, tpm2.TPM2_RC_SIZE)
                               0xDEADBEEF)
 
             self.client.send_cmd(cmd)
-        except IOError, e:
+        except IOError as e:
             rejected = True
         except:
             pass
             self.client.tpm.write(cmd)
             rsp = self.client.tpm.read()
 
-        except IOError, e:
+        except IOError as e:
             # read the response
             rsp = self.client.tpm.read()
             rejected = True
         rc = 0
         try:
             space1.send_cmd(cmd)
-        except ProtocolError, e:
+        except ProtocolError as e:
             rc = e.rc
 
         self.assertEqual(rc, tpm2.TPM2_RC_COMMAND_CODE |